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Barrier to Communication

BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

No matter how good the communication system in an organisation is, unfortunately barriers can and do often occur. This may be caused by a number of factors which can usually be summarised as being due to physical barriers, system design faults or additional barriers.

Physical barriers are often due to the nature of the environment. Thus, for example, the natural barrier which exists, if staff are located in different buildings or on different sites. Likewise, poor or outdated equipment, particularly the failure of management to introduce new technology, may also cause problems. Staff shortages are another factor which frequently causes communication difficulties for an organisation. Whilst distractions like background noise, poor lighting or an environment which is too hot or cold can all affect people's morale and concentration, which in turn interfere with effective communication.
System design faults refer to problems with the structures or systems in place in an organisation. Examples might include an organisational structure which is unclear and therefore makes it confusing to know who to communicate with. Other examples could be inefficient or inappropriate information systems, a lack of supervision or training, and a lack of clarity in roles and responsibilities which can lead to staff being uncertain about what is expected of them.
Attitudinal barriers come about as a result of problems with staff in an organisation. These may be brought about, for example, by such factors as poor management, lack of consultation with employees, personality conflicts which can result in people delaying or refusing to communicate, the personal attitudes of individual employees which may be due to lack of motivation or dissatisfaction at work, brought about by insufficient training to enable them to carry out particular tasks, or just resistance to change due to entrenched attitudes and ideas.

OTHER COMMON BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION INCLUDE:

	Psychological factors such as people's state of mind. We all tend to feel happier and more receptive to information when the sun shines. Equally, if someone has personal problems like worries about their health or marriage, then this will probably affect them.
	Different languages and cultures represent a national barrier which is particularly important for organisations involved in overseas business.
	Individual linguistic ability is also important. The use of difficult or inappropriate words in communication can prevent people from understanding the message. Poorly explained or misunderstood messages can also result in confusion. We can all think of situations where we have listened to something explained which we just could not grasp.
	Physiological barriers may result from individuals' personal discomfort, caused, for example, by ill health, poor eye sight or hearing difficulties.
	Presentation of information is also important to aid understanding.

Types of Communication

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

Communication is generally classified into a couple of types. The classifications include:

Verbal and non-verbal

Technological and non-technological

Mediated and non-mediated

Participatory and non-participatory

However, the commonly known types of communications are :

Intra-personal communication skills : This implies individual reflection, contemplation and meditation. One example of this is transcendental mediation. According to the experts this type of communication encompasses communicating with the divine and with spirits in the form of prayers and rites and rituals.

Interpersonal communication skills : This is direct, face-to-face communication that occurs between two persons. It is essentially a dialogue or a conversation between two or more people.

It is personal, direct, as well as intimate and permits maximum interaction through words and gestures. Interpersonal communications maybe:

Focused Interactions : This primarily results from an actual encounter between two persons. This implies that the two persons involved are completely aware of the communication happening between them.

Unfocused interactions : This occurs when one simply observes or listens to persons with whom one is not conversing. This usually occurs at stations and bus stops, as well as on the street, at restaurants, etc.

Non verbal communication skills : This includes aspects such as body language, gestures, facial expressions, eye contact, etc., which also become a part of the communicating process; as well as the written and typed modes of communications.

Mass communication : This is generally identified with tools of modern mass media including social media marketing, which includes: books, the press, cinema, television, radio, etc. It is a means of conveying messages to an entire populace.

No matter what the different types of communication skills are, communicating is an ever-continuing process that is going on all the time. It is as important to human life as is day-to-day existence.

Seven barriers to Comunication

Seven Barriers to Great Communication

Many people think that communicating is easy.
It is after all something we've done all our lives.
There is some truth in this simplistic view.
Communicating is straightforward.
What makes it complex, difficult, and frustrating are the barriers we put in the way.
Here are the 7 top barriers.

1. Physical barriers

Physical barriers in the workplace include:

marked out territories, empires and fiefdoms into which strangers are not allowed

closed office doors, barrier screens, separate areas for people of different status

large working areas or working in one unit that is physically separate from others.

Research shows that one of the most important factors in building cohesive teams is proximity. As long as people still have a personal space that they can call their own, nearness to others aids communication because it helps us get to know one another.

2. Perceptual barriers

The problem with communicating with others is that we all see the world differently. If we didn't, we would have no need to communicate: something like extrasensory perception would take its place.
The following anecdote is a reminder of how our thoughts, assumptions and perceptions shape our own realities:
A traveller was walking down a road when he met a man from the next town. "Excuse me," he said. "I am hoping to stay in the next town tonight. Can you tell me what the townspeople are like?"
"Well," said the townsman, "how did you find the people in the last town you visited?"
"Oh, they were an irascible bunch. Kept to themselves. Took me for a fool. Over-charged me for what I got. Gave me very poor service."
"Well, then," said the townsman, "you'll find them pretty much the same here."

3. Emotional barriers

One of the chief barriers to open and free communications is the emotional barrier. It is comprised mainly of fear, mistrust and suspicion. The roots of our emotional mistrust of others lie in our childhood and infancy when we were taught to be careful what we said to others.
"Mind your P's and Q's"; "Don't speak until you're spoken to"; "Children should be seen and not heard". As a result many people hold back from communicating their thoughts and feelings to others.
They feel vulnerable. While some caution may be wise in certain relationships, excessive fear of what others might think of us can stunt our development as effective communicators and our ability to form meaningful relationships.

4. Cultural barriers

When we join a group and wish to remain in it, sooner or later we need to adopt the behaviour patterns of the group. These are the behaviours that the group accept as signs of belonging.
The group rewards such behaviour through acts of recognition, approval and inclusion. In groups which are happy to accept you, and where you are happy to conform, there is a mutuality of interest and a high level of win-win contact.
Where, however, there are barriers to your membership of a group, a high level of game-playing replaces good communication.

5. Language barriers

Language that describes what we want to say in our terms may present barriers to others who are not familiar with our expressions, buzz-words and jargon. When we couch our communication in such language, it is a way of excluding others. In a global market place the greatest compliment we can pay another person is to talk in their language.
One of the more chilling memories of the Cold War was the threat by the Soviet leader Nikita Khruschev saying to the Americans at the United Nations: "We will bury you!" This was taken to mean a threat of nuclear annihilation.
However, a more accurate reading of Khruschev's words would have been: "We will overtake you!" meaning economic superiority. It was not just the language, but the fear and suspicion that the West had of the Soviet Union that led to the more alarmist and sinister interpretation.

6. Gender barriers

There are distinct differences between the speech patterns in a man and those in a woman. A woman speaks between 22,000 and 25,000 words a day whereas a man speaks between 7,000 and 10,000. In childhood, girls speak earlier than boys and at the age of three, have a vocabulary twice that of boys.
The reason for this lies in the wiring of a man's and woman's brains. When a man talks, his speech is located in the left side of the brain but in no specific area. When a woman talks, the speech is located in both hemispheres and in two specific locations.
This means that a man talks in a linear, logical and compartmentalised way, features of left-brain thinking; whereas a woman talks more freely mixing logic and emotion, features of both sides of the brain. It also explains why women talk for much longer than men each day.

7 Interpersonal barriers

There are six levels at which people can distance themselves from one another:

Withdrawal is an absence of interpersonal contact. It is both refusal to be in touch and time alone.

Rituals are meaningless, repetitive routines devoid of real contact.

Pastimes fill up time with others in social but superficial activities.

Working activities are those tasks which follow the rules and procedures of contact but no more.

Games are subtle, manipulative interactions which are about winning and losing. They include "rackets" and "stamps".

Closeness is the aim of interpersonal contact where there is a high level of honesty and acceptance of yourself and others.

Written communication

Written Communications

This is an intensely competitive world. To succeed, you have to stand out from the crowd. Develop the skill to express yourself clearly and effectively in writing. It will give you a strong competitive edge over 90% of your peers.

People who write well usually do well. Most transactions and professional relationships of consequence involve written letters, memos, reports and agreements at one stage or another. Putting something in writing forces you to sharpen your logic and the clarity of your thinking. Being able to communicate well in writing with customers, superiors, subordinates and suppliers is an essential but increasingly rare business skill. One of Apple’s strongest competitive advantages is how well it communicates with its customers.

The importance of writing well applies to virtually all fields of work. Winston Churchill referred to himself as “a strong believer in transacting official business by The Written Word.” The rewards of doing so are clearer direction for everyone, improved decision-making, fewer errors and less time lost as a result of ambiguity, misguided thinking and fuzziness in dealing with others.

Basic Principles

Observe these basic principles to achieve effective writing of letters, assignments, proposals, memos, reports and business plans:

Start by asking yourself what do I really need and want to say. Then, put yourself in your readers’ shoes and ask what is most relevant to them. Get clear in your mind the purpose of what you are writing.
Convey the right attitude and tone. This influences how your readers will respond to your content and message. Avoid giving the impression of being arrogant, coy, cute, pompous, pretentious, patronizing, superior or overly humble. Above all, do not be rude or sarcastic.
Express yourself in a clear, concise, bold manner. Be direct and get to the point. Do not use ineffectual, unnecessary opening comments or statements. Avoid wordiness by trying to explain too much or cover too much detail. If it is possible to eliminate a word, phrase, sentence or paragraph, do so. The longer the document you write, the greater is the likelihood that your readers will skim over its contents superficially.
Refrain from writing and sending any form of written communications in anger or extreme frustration. It always comes back to haunt you when you do so.
Make any written apologies sincere and succinct. Do not weaken or contradict your apology by adding any “but” or “however” statements.
Always, always date every written communication and document, including all individual exhibits, charts, tables and drafts. Nothing is more irritating than being unable to know when a written document was prepared or whether you are reading the most current version of that document. When you change or revise anything, put the new date on the document.
All written documents of any type need to have their pages numbered following the first page. Place the page number centered at either the bottom or top of each page.

Always be careful what you put in writing. If it concerns confidential information, put “CONFIDENTIAL” in all capital letters and bold print at the top of the first page of your letter or memo, or on the cover page of a report. Underline this heading in red if you wish to emphasize it even more.

Recognize that there is always a chance that any written communication or document may end up in the hands of competitors, the media or a government official. Keep this in mind when you put anything in writing, including e-mails. If you would not want to see something published on the front page of a newspaper, you probably should not put it in writing.

Organization and Format

The organization and format of your written communications help to determine their effectiveness. Follow these points:

Write what you have to say in some form of logical and coherent sequence, preferably in order of importance to your reader or chronologically.
Keep in mind that the most important sentence in any letter, document or paragraph is usually the first one. The second most important is usually the last one.
Restrict the contents of each paragraph to only one unified subject. Each sentence should relate to the same central idea being covered in the paragraph. When you go on to a new topic, start a new paragraph. Try to have the last sentence in each paragraph serve as the springboard for the next paragraph. Generally, refrain from including more than three or four sentences in a paragraph. Conversely, paragraphs usually need to comprise more than just one sentence unless you are writing a letter or e-mail. Be consistent in the way that the start of the first sentence in each paragraph is indented.
Put lists of recommendations or anything else in order of importance or priority. Use a consistent form in giving the contents of any lists, e.g., begin each item in the list in the same way with a noun or a verb in the same tense.
When you are listing names in any form of written communications, always do so in the alphabetical order of each person’s last name. This includes distribution lists of whom is to receive copies of e-mails, memos and letters as well as lists of people who attended a meeting. The same applies to any lists of organizations. To list people and organizations in any other order raises unnecessary political or status issues in the minds of the recipients.
Pay attention to how your written communications look as well as what you say. Use the appropriate style of print, spacing and margins to maximize the readability of every type of written document.
Do not use a print size and font that are difficult to read. Utilize relatively wide and consistent margins to properly frame the printed contents of each page. The left margin should be at least one inch wide, the right margin one-half to one inch, and the top and bottom margins a minimum of one-half inch, preferably one inch.
Leave at least one-quarter to one-half inch of space between any graphic elements, such as the letterhead, the name and address, lists, charts and tables. Always indent any lists one-half inch, using bullets or numbers for each item.

Make it as easy as possible for readers to quickly find the main points you are making. Resist overcrowding your pages with too much print or information. Ask yourself, what can I do to make this letter, memo or document more readable?

Style

The way you express yourself is critical to the success of your written communications. Incorporate these principles into your style of writing:

Write in a natural, conversational style and tone just as you talk. Be yourself. Do not put on airs. Your objective is to express, not impress.
Emphasize the facts of consequence and be careful about expressing your opinions. Do not exaggerate. It just weakens your case.
Use the active verb tense, where the subject performs the action, wherever possible. It pushes your readers along in a more direct and forceful manner. Try to avoid using the passive verb tense as it weakens what you are writing and sounds tentative. “I recommend you read this book” or better yet “Read this book” are much stronger than “It is recommended that you read this book.”
Keep your sentences and wording positive, as much as it is possible to do so. Avoid using unnecessary negatives, e.g., “dishonest” is better than “not honest”. Never use two negatives in the same sentence.
Use lean and short sentences and paragraphs. Try not to include more than one idea in a sentence.
Avoid using unnecessary commas. Follow the practice of when in doubt, leave the comma out. On the other hand, serious lawsuits have been caused by the misplacement of commas in agreements and contracts. Use commas to set something apart in a sentence.
Minimize the use of semi-colons. You can use them to separate two independent clauses in one sentence but in most cases you are better off to make them into separate sentences. Semi-colons should be used to separate lists of clauses (or items) within a sentence where commas are contained within some or all of the clauses.
Try to be consistent in the use of the same pronouns and verb tense throughout. Do not switch pronouns or tenses in the middle of a sentence or paragraph.
Refrain from putting quotation marks around words or terms unless you have a special reason for doing so. The same applies to underlining them.

Having an effective writing style requires a combination of expressing yourself in a coherent, persuasive manner and using language that is appropriate for the type of document involved. What is appropriate for a business letter or communication may be different than what is suitable for an academic document. Differences also exist between accepted American and British expressions of language and style. Adopt a consistent style of writing that suits the type of document you are preparing. In most cases, the style of writing you use should also reflect your own individual personality and character.

Word Usage and Grammar

One of the best ways to build your vocabulary and improve your writing skills is to get into the habit of regularly reading quality newspapers and magazines, such as the Wall Street Journal and the Economist. Another way is to read books by well-known authors on a variety of subjects, including fiction. Quite simply, the more you read, the better writer you will become.

Here are some common points to keep in mind regarding effective word usage and grammar:

Resist using long words when a shorter one will do or say the same thing. The shorter the word, the more likely your readers will understand it.
With adjectives, follow Mark Twain’s advice, “When in doubt, strike out.” Similarly, delete unnecessary adverbs that essentially convey the same meaning as the verb. Avoid using redundant little qualifiers that dilute rather than strengthen your meaning, such as “very”, “quite”, “pretty” and “too”.
Use simple, straightforward language. Avoid clichés, flowery words, technobabble, bureaucratic jargon and slang. Do not use overworked buzzwords, such as “bottom-line”, “paradigm”, “proactive”, “24/7”, “synergies” and “value-added”. The same applies to ambiguous, vague and wishy-washy words and phrases.
Refrain from including the word “I” too many times or you will sound egotistical. “I” should only be used when you’re referring to yourself in the subject of a sentence, e.g., “I am going to the movie.” Only use “we” when you’re referring to a group, company or organization to which you belong. “We” also should just be used as the subject of a sentence, e.g., “We are going to the theatre.”
The words “me” and “us” should only be used as the object of a verb or preposition and never as the subject of a sentence. For example, “He wants me [or us] to join the group” or “Between you and me [never “I”], he wants to join us.”
Use “who” as the subject of a sentence or phrase in place of “he”, “she” or “they”. Only use “whom” as the object of a sentence or phrase, or following a preposition, e.g., “To whom do I owe this honor?”
Do not start sentences with the words “No”, “But” or “However”. And, do not end sentences with “however”.
To form the possessive of a singular noun or name, add an apostrophe and an “s” (horse’s halter, boss’s chair, Mr. Ross’s hat). For the possessive of a plural noun, add an apostrophe after the “s” (workers’ wages).
Do not make the common mistake of confusing “it’s” and “its”. “It’s” is the shortened version of “it is” or “it has”. When you want to write that something belongs to something else, use the possessive pronoun “its” without an apostrophe in front of the “s”. The same applies to the use of “ours”, “theirs” and “yours”.
Insert a hyphen when two words are compounded to act as an adjective for a noun, e.g., long-term plans, low-income housing, year-end figures.
When you are referring to figures, “about” means a rough estimate and “approximately” means close to the accurate amount.
For most writing, spell out the numbers ten and under unless you are referring to dates, financial numbers or the time of day. Use numerals for 11 and up. Be careful using “M’s” with numbers. One M equals a thousand in the U.S. and a million in the U.K. The same applies to numerical dates — 8/2/06 means August 2, 2006 in the U.S. and February 8, 2006 in the U.K. If you choose to use numerical dates, always be consistent in the method you employ to do so.
Avoid using “etc.” at the end of a list as it always makes the reader wonder about what else you actually meant to say.

Word misusage occurs most often with the following:

Wrongly using plural verbs when the subject is singular and vice versa. A plural subject requires a plural verb.
The verb “to affect” means to change or influence, e.g., “The weather is affecting my mood.” The verb “to effect” means to bring about or accomplish, e.g., “Inflation is effecting an increase in prices”.
“Because of” means as a result of. “Due to” means attributable to.
The verb “can” means an ability to do something. The verb “may” means asking permission or expressing the possibility of doing something. “I can go to the opera but I may not do so.”
When you want to list examples at the end of a sentence, put a comma followed by “e.g.” and then another comma (as in “, e.g.,”). Similarly, you can use “i.e.” followed by a comma in place of saying “that is” or “in other words”.
Use “compared with” to refer to the differences in two or more items of a similar nature, such as “Last year, our earnings were $1,500,000 compared with $1,000,000 in the prior year.” Use “compared to” to point out differences in two or more items of a basically different character.
Use the verb “to feel” to describe what you do with your hands, and “believe” for what you strongly think in your mind.
“Irregardless” is not a word. Use “regardless”.
“Principal” is an adjective or noun that means the main person or thing (the principal idea, the principal of the school) or a sum of money on which interest is charged. “Principle” is a noun that means a fundamental rule or basic truth.
Using “prioritize” or “strategize” as a verb is awkward. It is better to refer to the nouns “priority” or “strategy”.
Use “such as” or “for example” instead of “like” when you give examples. Only use the word “like” as a verb to indicate you like someone or something. Also, avoid using it as an exclamatory word by itself in speaking.
Do not use “there’s” when you should use “there are” or “they’re” to refer to something plural. It is wrong for someone to say or write, “There’s four factors to consider.” Also, don’t use “their” when you mean to say “they are”. “Their” is the plural possessive pronoun referring to something that belongs to a group of people (e.g., “They’re walking out the door wearing their hats.”).
Do not mix up the verbs “to scratch” and “to itch”. When you have an insect bite, you scratch the bite when it itches you. You never itch a bite.
You “loan” money to someone and you “borrow” money from someone. It is incorrect to say you “loaned” money from someone.

Do not count on your computer’s spell-check program to flag inappropriate word usage. Most of the above examples would be missed by spell-check.

When in doubt about the exact meaning, spelling or use of a word, look it up. Consult www.dictionary.com or use www.onelook.com, a compilation of 950 general and specialized dictionaries, to obtain the correct spelling and meaning of words. For this purpose, however, I still prefer to use the latest edition of the Oxford Dictionary or Merriam Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary.

It is vitally important to follow the correct rules of grammar in all your writing. Not to do so will quickly undermine your credibility in the minds of your readers. If you are uncertain about points of grammar, you need to make the effort to become familiar with the basics of proper grammar. It is something that is relatively easy to learn. You can do so by going to a public library or purchasing a book to consult on this subject. See the last section of this chapter for specific sources of information regarding this matter.

Finally, be aware that certain professions, such as engineering or medicine, adhere to their own generic accepted style of writing and word usage, especially in the case of their own discipline-specific reports, articles and journals. If you become a member of such a profession, you will be expected to master its forms of language and expression.

Edit and Revise

Be a tough editor of everything you write. Hemingway rewrote the first part of his book A Farewell to Arms at least 50 times. Revise, revise, revise. Simplify, simplify, simplify. If it is an important written piece, sleep on it and edit again.

The well-known authority on writing, William Zinsser, said: “With each rewrite I try to make what I have written tighter, stronger and more precise, eliminating every element that is not doing useful work.” To assist in achieving this goal, read aloud what you have written to yourself or a colleague. Rewrite anything that sounds awkward, confusing or repetitious.

Carefully proofread everything you write for spelling and grammatical errors, words omitted, typos, and mistakes in dates, numbers and statistics. Do not be lazy and try to proofread your writing on a computer screen. Always print off a hard-copy for the purpose of proofreading.

If you’re uncertain how a word should be spelled, again do not trust your computer’s spell-check program to get it right. Look up the word in a dictionary. Many mistakes are made by relying solely on spell-checks. “Stationary” and “stationery” are both correctly spelled but mean totally different things. It helps to keep a list of your most frequently misspelled words. Any error, mistake or typo in the final copy of your written communication automatically causes the reader to take you less seriously than would otherwise be the case and undermines your image of professionalism.

Business Letters

Your business letters represent a projection of both yourself as an individual and your organization. In all likelihood, the recipients receive countless other written communications of all types every working day. To have a chance of being read and taken seriously, all your business letters have to be well-written with care or they will get lost in the shuffle.

To produce an effective business letter, pay attention to these points:

Get clear in your mind exactly what you want to accomplish with the letter. Place yourself in the reader’s shoes and ask what is most important to that person on the subject you are writing about.
Develop a logical sequence for covering the topics you need to include in your letter, based largely on what matters most to your reader.
In most cases, try to keep your letter to one page but do not use smaller than normal print size or eliminate the margin at the bottom of the page to do so. Depending on the content and complexity of the subject, you may need to use two pages for your letter but try to avoid using three or more pages.
Put a brief newspaper-type headline in bold print centered at the top of the first page above the salutation of “Dear … ” to get the attention of the reader regarding the subject of your letter, e.g., New Product Launch.
Follow all of the basic principles of excellent writing described earlier. Do not be stiff or overly formal. Express yourself in a courteous, natural manner. Inject some of your hopefully warm and friendly personality into what you are writing.
Try to write in a concise, original and punchy style. Avoid flowery, clichéd and stock phrases. Keep your sentences and verbs in the active tense. Eliminate anything that may be of minor interest to the reader. Do not be repetitive.
Pay special attention to your first one or two sentences. They have to make the reader want to continue to read the rest. Also, avoid using “I” in the first one or two sentences.
In your final paragraph, briefly cover what you want or are asking to happen next.

Other recommendations regarding business letters are:

Always try to write to a specific person by name as opposed to “Dear Credit Manager”. This is especially important when applying for a job, attempting to make a sale, or soliciting someone’s support. Make an effort to find out exactly to whom you are writing. Letters addressed to departments or positions as opposed to a specific person are rarely read or taken seriously.
Ensure that you are spelling the person’s and the organization’s name correctly, plus using the accurate address.
Place a colon after the opening salutation of a letter when you are using someone’s last name (“Dear Ms. White:”). Use a comma when you are only using the first name (“Dear Joan,”).
For the signoff, use “Sincerely yours,” when the salutation is by last name and “With best regards” when it is by first name. For a punchy ending, skip any “sincerely yours” and just sign your name.
If you are using someone’s first name in the opening salutation, in most cases you should sign the end the letter with just your first name.
Under the space for your signature at the end of a business letter, print your full name and below it your title. Never include your education degrees after your name unless they are professional licensed degrees, such as a CA or M.D. The same applies to other types of written communications as well as your business cards. Otherwise it makes you look pretentious.
Print out a hard-copy draft of your letter so you can proof it properly before printing the final version. If it is an important letter, read the draft out loud to yourself and think about how it will “sound” to the reader.
Always put your full name and that of your organization together with its mailing address in the upper left-hand corner of the front of the envelope.

I strongly recommend that you develop a clearly legible, distinctive personal signature. As someone said, it takes courage and confidence to have a legible signature. Do not hide behind an indecipherable scrawl of a signature.

If you have the flexibility to create your own letterhead, put it at the top of the page with your name on the top line, your organization’s full “name” on the next line, your complete address on the third line, and your phone number, fax number and e-mail address on the fourth line. Try not to use more than one-and-a-
quarter inches of the top margin for your letterhead. If you want to include a logo and perhaps your organization’s slogan on the stationery, put them centered on the bottom of the page, using no more than three-quarters of an inch of the lower margin to do so.

Memos and Reports

Memos are used principally to communicate information, assignments and recommendations to others internally within your own group or organization. They can vary in length from one to about five pages but the longer the memo, the higher the risk it won’t be read.

Reports are usually longer documents designed to contain more complete information on major subjects of some complexity or importance. They are usually longer than five pages in length and often contain exhibits, tables or other attachments.

The starting point for any memo or report is to select a short subject heading or title that grabs people’s attention and succinctly telegraphs what the document is about. If you are making a request for some action or decision, use a subject heading or title that begins with “Request for … .

To prepare effective memos and reports, you first need to develop an outline covering the main points in some logical sequence from the standpoint of your intended readers. In the case of reports, a common format or sequence to follow is:

The definition of the issue or problem.
The criteria that any solution must meet.
The principal points relevant to dealing with the issue or problem.
The main alternative solutions available.
Your recommended solution and the reasons for it.
A summary and decisive ending.

With both memos and reports, use headings and subheadings to break up the text, topic by topic, and make it easier for your readers to find the parts of special interest to them. Be consistent in the style of headings and the use of any bold-faced print.

Use the following standard heading at the top of the first page of your memos:

[The date.]

Subject: [What the memo is about. Keep it short.]
To: [The primary person who needs to read the memo. If more than one, list them one below the other. Do not include positions or titles with their names.]
From: [Your name.]
Copy: [Anyone else who definitely needs to receive a copy.]

Lengthy reports and other business documents require a cover page, followed by a “Contents” page and then an “Executive Summary” as the first section. The table of contents should give the starting page numbers for each section and at the end include a listing of any tables, charts and appendix materials contained at the back of the report. The Executive Summary should be no longer than one or two pages, highlighting the most important points, recommendations and conclusions contained in the report. All memos, reports and other business documents should always be dated, preferably on the first or cover page.

If you have access to the Internet, use search engines, such as Google and Yahoo, to assist in researching the subjects of your business reports. These search engines are absolutely amazing in terms of the amount of available information you can easily obtain through them.

Handwritten Notes

Handwritten notes are an excellent way to express your appreciation or congratulations to colleagues and other business associates in a personalized manner, whether they work inside or outside of your office. Take advantage of any opportunities to send such notes, including birthdays and anniversaries. By doing so, you are in effect saying, “I’m thinking about you and I don’t take our relationship for granted.”

Whenever someone outside of your organization takes you out for a business meal or to an event, it is usually an excellent idea to send a letter to say thank you within a maximum of three days after the occasion. The same applies if a person makes a special effort to assist you in any way. Your expression of appreciation has much more impact when you take the time to handwrite it as opposed to sending a typed thank-you note, letter or e-mail.

When you come across a newspaper or magazine article that might be of interest to someone you know or have met, send it to that person with a signed handwritten note saying, “Thought you might be interested in the attached.”

If someone in a colleague’s family dies, again send a handwritten note saying, “I was sorry to hear about … Please accept my condolences. She was a great friend and will be dearly missed by everyone.” Do the same with good news, such as the arrival of a newborn baby in the family.

In most cases, sign such notes with your first name. It is also a good idea to put your full name and address on the outside of the front of the envelope so there is no confusion over who sent the not.

Written communication

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Non Verbal Communication-2

Nonverbal Communication Skills

The Power of Nonverbal communication and Body Language

Good communication is the foundation of successful   relationships, both personally and professionally. But we communicate  with much  more than words. In fact, research shows that the majority of  our communication  is nonverbal. Nonverbal communication, or body  language, includes our facial expressions, gestures, eye contact, posture,  and even the tone of our voice.
The  ability to understand and use nonverbal  communication is a powerful tool that will  help you connect with  others, express what you really mean, navigate  challenging situations,  and build better relationships at home and work.

In This Article: Power of nonverbal communication
 Nonverbal communication in relationships
 Types of nonverbal communication
 Using body language
 Improving nonverbal skills 
Nonverbal communication and emotional intelligence

The power of nonverbal communication and body language

Nonverbal communication, or body language, is a vital form of communication. When we interact with others, we continuously give and receive countless wordless signals. All of our nonverbal behaviors—the gestures we make, the way we sit, how fast or how loud we talk, how close we stand, how much eye contact we make—send strong messages.

The way you listen, look, move, and react tell the other person whether or not you care and how well you’re listening. The nonverbal signals you send either produce a sense of interest, trust, and desire for connection—or they generate disinterest, distrust, and confusion.

Nonverbal communication cues can play five roles:

Repetition: they can repeat the message the person is making verbally
Contradiction: they can contradict a message the individual is trying to convey
Substitution: they can substitute for a verbal message. For example, a person's eyes can often convey a far more vivid message than words and often do
Complementing: they may add to or complement a verbal message. A boss who pats a person on the back in addition to giving praise can increase the impact of the message
Accenting: they may accent or underline a verbal message. Pounding the table, for example, can underline a message.

Source: The Importance of Effective Communication, Edward G. Wertheim, Ph.D.

Nonverbal communication and body language in relationships

It takes more than words to create fulfilling, strong relationships. Nonverbal communication has a huge impact on the quality of our relationships. Nonverbal communication skills improve relationships by helping you:

Accurately read other people, including the emotions they’re feeling and the unspoken messages they’re sending.
Create trust and transparency in relationships by sending nonverbal signals that match up with your words.
Respond with nonverbal cues that show others that you understand, notice, and care.

Unfortunately, many people send confusing or negative nonverbal signals without even knowing it. When this happens, both connection and trust are lost in our relationships.

Consider the case of Arlene:

Arlene is attractive and has no problem meeting eligible men — it’s keeping them that is the problem! Arlene is funny and a good conversationalist, but even though she laughs and smiles constantly, she radiates tension. Arlene’s shoulders and eyebrows are noticeably raised, her voice is shrill and her body stiff to touch. Being around Arlene makes many people feel uncomfortable. Arlene has a lot going for her that is undercut by the discomfort she evokes in others.
Arlene is articulate, attractive, and well-intentioned, but she struggles to connect with others because she isn’t aware of the nonverbal messages she’s communicating. But she can break this pattern if she learns to pay attention to the wordless signals she sends and receives:
Arlene notices that her date is tapping his fingers and that she has been swinging her leg and foot. He looks bored, and she feels tense all over. Taking a long, deep breath and a swallow of wine, she feels her shoulders drop and her jaw relax. Arlene leans across the table and breaks into a warm smile. Her date smiles back, and their eyes meet and hold. She has also used her new observational skills at work and is now much more comfortable interacting with others in that setting.

Types of nonverbal communication and body language

There are many different types of nonverbal communication. Together, the following nonverbal signals and cues communicate your interest and investment in others.

Facial expressions

The human face is extremely expressive, able to express countless emotions without saying a word. And unlike some forms of nonverbal communication, facial expressions are universal. The facial expressions for happiness, sadness, anger, surprise, fear, and disgust are the same across cultures.

Body movements and posture

Consider how your perceptions of people are affected by the way they sit, walk, stand up, or hold their head. The way you move and carry yourself communicates a wealth of information to the world. This type of nonverbal communication includes your posture, bearing, stance, and subtle movements.

Gestures

Gestures are woven into the fabric of our daily lives. We wave, point, beckon, and use our hands when we’re arguing or speaking animatedly—expressing ourselves with gestures often without thinking. However, the meaning of gestures can be very different across cultures and regions, so it’s important to be careful to avoid misinterpretation.

Eye contact

Since the visual sense is dominant for most people, eye contact is an especially important type of nonverbal communication. The way you look at someone can communicate many things, including interest, affection, hostility, or attraction. Eye contact is also important in maintaining the flow of conversation and for gauging the other person’s response.

Touch

We communicate a great deal through touch. Think about the messages given by the following: a firm handshake, a timid tap on the shoulder, a warm bear hug, a reassuring pat on the back, a patronizing pat on the head, or a controlling grip on your arm.

Space

Have you ever felt uncomfortable during a conversation because the other person was standing too close and invading your space? We all have a need for physical space, although that need differs depending on the culture, the situation, and the closeness of the relationship. You can use physical space to communicate many different nonverbal messages, including signals of intimacy, aggression, dominance, or affection.

Voice

We communicate with our voices, even when we are not using words. Nonverbal speech sounds such as tone, pitch, volume, inflection, rhythm, and rate are important communication elements. When we speak, other people “read” our voices in addition to listening to our words. These nonverbal speech sounds provide subtle but powerful clues into our true feelings and what we really mean. Think about how tone of voice, for example, can indicate sarcasm, anger, affection, or confidence.

It’s not what you say, it’s how you say it

Intensity. A reflection of the amount of energy you project is considered your intensity. Again, this has as much to do with what feels good to the other person as what you personally prefer.
Timing and pace. Your ability to be a good listener and communicate interest and involvement is impacted by timing and pace.
Sounds that convey understanding. Sounds such as “ahhh, ummm, ohhh,” uttered with congruent eye and facial gestures, communicate understanding and emotional connection. More than words, these sounds are the language of interest, understanding and compassion.

Tips for successful nonverbal communication:

Take a time out if you’re feeling overwhelmed by stress. Stress compromises your ability to communicate. When you’re stressed out, you’re more likely to misread other people, send off confusing or off-putting nonverbal signals, and lapse into unhealthy knee-jerk patterns of behavior. Take a moment to calm down before you jump back into the conversation. Once you’ve regained your emotional equilibrium, you’ll be better equipped to deal with the situation in a positive way.
Pay attention to inconsistencies. Nonverbal communication should reinforce what is being said. If you get the feeling that someone isn’t being honest or that something is “off,” you may be picking up on a mismatch between verbal and nonverbal cues. Is the person is saying one thing, and their body language something else? For example, are they telling you “yes” while shaking their head no?
Look at nonverbal communication signals as a group. Don’t read too much into a single gesture or nonverbal cue. Consider all of the nonverbal signals you are sending and receiving, from eye contact to tone of voice and body language. Are your nonverbal cues consistent—or inconsistent—with what you are trying to communicate?

Nonverbal communication and body language: Common mistakes

You’re not subtle. Be objective about your own observations to make sure you aren’t offending others by broadly mimicking their speech or behavior. Remember, most people instinctively send and interpret nonverbal signals all the time, so don’t assume you’re the only one who’s aware of nonverbal undercurrents. Finally, stay true to yourself. Be aware of your own natural style, and don’t adopt behavior that is incompatible with it.
You bluff. Thinking you can bluff by deliberately altering your body language can do more harm than good. Unless you’re a proficient actor, it will be hard to overcome your body’s inability to lie. There will always be mixed messages, signs that your channels of communication are not congruent. It’s a prime example of leakage, and something others will detect, one way or another.
You rush to accuse based on body language alone. Incorrect accusations based on erroneous observations can be embarrassing and damaging and take a long time to overcome. Always verify your interpretation with another communications channel before rushing in. You could say something like, “I get the feeling you’re uncomfortable with this course of action. Would you like to add something to the discussion?” This should draw out the real message and force the individual to come clean or to adjust his or her body language.

Improving your nonverbal communication skills

Before you can improve your nonverbal communication skills, you need to figure out what you’re doing right and where there is room for improvement. The most effective method is to observe yourself in action:

Video camera – Videotape a conversation between you and a partner. Set the camera to record both of you at the same time, so you can observe the nonverbal back-and-forth. When you watch the recording, focus on any discrepancies between your verbal and nonverbal communication.
Digital camera – Ask someone to take a series of photos of you while you’re talking to someone else. As you look through the photos, focus on you and the other person’s body language, facial expressions, and gestures.
Audio recorder – Record a conversation between you and a friend or family member. As you listen to the recording afterwards, concentrate on the way things are said, rather than the words. Pay attention to tone, timing, pace, and other sounds.

As you watch or listen to the recordings, ask yourself the following questions:

Evaluating your nonverbal communication skills
Eye contact	Is this source of connection missing, too intense, or just right in yourself or in the person you are looking at?
Facial expression	What is your face showing? Is it masklike and unexpressive, or emotionally present and filled with interest? What do you see as you look into the faces of others?
Tone of voice	Does your voice project warmth, confidence, and delight, or is it strained and blocked? What do you hear as you listen to other people?
Posture and gesture	Does your body look still and immobile, or relaxed? Sensing the degree of tension in your shoulders and jaw answers this question. What do you observe about the degree of tension or relaxation in the body of the person you are speaking to?
Touch	Remember, what feels good is relative. How do you like to be touched? Who do you like to have touching you? Is the difference between what you like and what the other person likes obvious to you?
Intensity	Do you or the person you are communicating with seem flat, cool, and disinterested, or over-the-top and melodramatic? Again, this has as much to do with what feels good to the other person as it does with what you personally prefer.
Timing and pace	What happens when you or someone you care about makes an important statement? Does a response—not necessarily verbal—come too quickly or too slowly? Is there an easy flow of information back and forth?
Sounds	Do you use sounds to indicate that you are attending to the other person? Do you pick up on sounds from others that indicate their caring or concern for you?

Non Verbal Communication-1

Non-Verbal Communication

When Demosthenes was asked what was the first part of oratory he answered, "'action"; and which was the second, he replied, "action"; and which was third he still answered, "action." People tend to believe actions more than words!

Have you ever heard anyone say, "His actions spoke so loudly I couldn't hear what he said?" Have you ever wondered whether anyone has said this about you? What we do is a means of communication, subject to interpretation by others. Did you ever stop to think that even failure to act is a way of communicating?

Today, many researchers are concerned with the information sent by communication that is independent of and different from verbal information; namely, the non-verbal communication. Verbal communication is organized by language; non-verbal communication is not.

Communication is the transfer of information from one person to another. Most of us spend about 75 percent of our waking hours communicating our knowledge, thoughts, and ideas to others. However, most of us fail to realize that a great deal of our communication is of a non-verbal form as opposed to the oral and written forms. Non-verbal communication includes facial expressions, eye contact, tone of voice, body posture and motions, and positioning within groups. It may also include the way we wear our clothes or the silence we keep.

In person-to-person communications our messages are sent on two levels simultaneously. If the nonverbal cues and the spoken message are incongruous, the flow of communication is hindered. Right or wrong, the receiver of the communication tends to base the intentions of the sender on the non- verbal cues he receives.

Categories and Features

G. W. Porter divides non-verbal communication into four broad categories:

Physical. This is the personal type of communication. It includes facial expressions, tone of voice, sense of touch, sense of smell, and body motions.
Aesthetic. This is the type of communication that takes place through creative expressions: playing instrumental music, dancing, painting and sculpturing.
Signs. This is the mechanical type of communication, which includes the use of signal flags, the 21-gun salute, horns, and sirens.
Symbolic. This is the type of communication that makes use of religious, status, or ego-building symbols.

Our concern here will be with what Porter has called the physical method of non-verbal communication.

Knowledge of non-verbal communication is important managers who serve as leaders of organizational "teams," for at least two reasons:

To function effectively as a team leader the manager must interact with the other members successfully. Non-verbal cues, when interpreted correctly, provide him with one means to do so.

The team members project attitudes and feelings through non-verbal communication. Some personal needs such as approval, growth, achievement, and recognition may be met in effective teams. The extent to which these needs are met is closely related to how perceptive the team leader and team members are to non-verbal communication in themselves and in others on the team.

If the team members show a true awareness to non-verbal cues, the organization will have a better chance to succeed, for it will be an open, honest, and confronting unit. Argyle and his associates have been studying the features of nonverbal communication that provide information to managers and their team members. The following summarizes their findings:

Static Features

Distance.

Distance. The distance one stands from another frequently conveys a non-verbal message. In some cultures it is a sign of attraction, while in others it may reflect status or the intensity of the exchange.

Orientation. People may present themselves in various ways: face-to-face, side-to-side, or even back-to-back. For example, cooperating people are likely to sit side-by-side while competitors frequently face one another.

Posture. Obviously one can be lying down, seated, or standing. These are not the elements of posture that convey messages. Are we slouched or erect ? Are our legs crossed or our arms folded ? Such postures convey a degree of formality and the degree of relaxation in the communication exchange.

Physical Contact. Shaking hands, touching, holding, embracing, pushing, or patting on the back all convey messages. They reflect an element of intimacy or a feeling of (or lack of) attraction.

Dynamic Features

Facial Expressions.

Facial Expressions. A smile, frown, raised eyebrow, yawn, and sneer all convey information. Facial expressions continually change during interaction and are monitored constantly by the recipient. There is evidence that the meaning of these expressions may be similar across cultures.

Gestures. One of the most frequently observed, but least understood, cues is a hand movement. Most people use hand movements regularly when talking. While some gestures (e.g., a clenched fist) have universal meanings, most of the others are individually learned and idiosyncratic.

Looking. A major feature of social communication is eye contact. It can convey emotion, signal when to talk or finish, or aversion. The frequency of contact may suggest either interest or boredom.

The above list shows that both static features and dynamic features transmit important information from the sender to the receiver.

Tortoriello, Blott, and DeWine have defined non-verbal communication as:

". . . the exchange of messages primarily through non-linguistic means, including: kinesics (body language), facial expressions and eye contact, tactile communication, space and territory, environment, paralanguage (vocal but non-linguistic cues), and the use of silence and time."

Let's review these non-linguistic ways of exchanging messages in more detail.

Kinesics

Lamb believes the best way to access an executive's managerial potential is not to listen to what he has to say, but to observe what he does when he is saying it. He calls this new behavioral science "movement analysis." Some of the movements and gestures he has analyzed follow:

Forward and Backward Movements. If you extend a hand straight forward during an interview or tend to lean forward, Lamb considers you to be an "operator"- good for an organization requiring an infusion of energy or dramatic change of course.

Vertical Movements. If you tend to draw yourself up to your tallest during the handshake, Lamb considers you to be a "presenter." You are a master at selling yourself or the organization in which you are employed.

Side-to-Side Movements. If you take a lot of space while talking by moving your arms about, you are a good informer and good listener. You are best suited for an organization seeking a better sense of direction. Lamb believes there is a relationship between positioning of the body and movements of the limbs and facial expressions. He has observed harmony between the two. On the other hand, if certain gestures are rehearsed, such as those made to impress others, there is a tendency to separate the posture and the movements. The harmony disappears.

Studies by Lamb also indicate that communication comes about through our degree of body flexibility. If you begin a movement with considerable force and then decelerate, you are considered a "gentle-touch." By contrast, if you are a "pressurizer," you are firm from beginning to end. The accuracy of Lamb's analyses is not fully known. However, it is important that corporation executives are becoming so sensitive to the importance of non-verbal messages that they are hiring consultants, such as Lamb, to analyze non-verbal communications in their organizations.

Facial Expressions

Facial expressions usually communicate emotions. The expressions tell the attitudes of the communicator. Researchers have discovered that certain facial areas reveal our emotional state better than others. For example, the eyes tend to reveal happiness or sadness, and even surprise. The lower face also can reveal happiness or surprise; the smile, for example, can communicate friendliness and cooperation. The lower face, brows, and forehead can also reveal anger. Mehrabian believes verbal cues provide 7 percent of the meaning of the message; vocal cues, 38 percent; and facial expressions, 55 percent. This means that, as the receiver of a message, you can rely heavily on the facial expressions of the sender because his expressions are a better indicator of the meaning behind the message than his words.

Eye Contact

Eye contact is a direct and powerful form of non-verbal communication. The superior in the organization generally maintains eye contact longer than the subordinate. The direct stare of the sender of the message conveys candor and openness. It elicits a feeling of trust. Downward glances are generally associated with modesty. Eyes rolled upward are associated with fatigue.

Tactile Communication

Communication through touch is obviously non-verbal. Used properly it can create a more direct message than dozens of words; used improperly it can build barriers and cause mistrust. You can easily invade someone's space through this type of communication. If it is used reciprocally, it indicates solidarity; if not used reciprocally, it tends to indicate differences in status. Touch not only facilitates the sending of the message, but the emotional impact of the message as well.

Personal Space

Personal space is your "bubble" - the space you place between yourself and others. This invisible boundary becomes apparent only when someone bumps or tries to enter your bubble.

How you identify your personal space and use the environment in which you find yourself influences your ability to send or receive messages. How close do you stand to the one with whom you are communicating ? Where do you sit in the room ? How do you position yourself with respect to others at a meeting ? All of these things affect your level of comfort, and the level of comfort of those receiving your message.

Goldhaber says there are three basic principles that summarize the use of personal space in an organization: The higher your position (status) in the organization,

(a) the more and better space you will have,

(b) the better protected your territory will be, and

The impact of use of space on the communication process is related directly to the environment in which the space is maintained.

Environment

How do you arrange the objects in your environment - the desks, chairs, tables, and bookcases? The design of your office, according to researchers, can greatly affect the communications within it. Some managers divide their offices into personal and impersonal areas. This can improve the communication process if the areas are used for the purposes intended.

Your pecking-order in the organization is frequently determined by such things as the size of your desk, square feet in your office, number of windows in the office, quality of the carpet, and type of paintings (originals or copies) on the wall.

It is obvious that your personal space and environment affect the level of your comfort and your status and facilitate or hinder the communication process.

Paralanguage

Is the content of your message contradicted by the attitude with which you are communicating it? Researchers have found that the tone, pitch, quality of voice, and rate of speaking convey emotions that can be accurately judged regardless of the content of the message. The important thing to gain from this is that the voice is important, not just as the conveyor of the message, but as a complement to the message. As a communicator you should be sensitive to the influence of tone, pitch, and quality of your voice on the interpretation of your message by the receiver.

Silence and Time

Silence can be a positive or negative influence in the communications process. It can provide a link between messages or sever relationships. It can create tension and uneasiness or create a peaceful situation. Silence can also be judgmental by indicating favor or disfavor - agreement or disagreement.

For example, suppose a manager finds a couple of his staff members resting.

If he believes these staff members are basically lazy, the idleness conveys to him that they are "goofing off" and should be given additional assignments.
If he believes these staff members are self-motivated and good workers, the idleness conveys to him that they are taking a well-deserved "break."
If he is personally insecure, the idleness conveys to him that they are threatening his authority.

Time can be an indicator of status. How long will you give the staff member who wishes to speak to you ? How long will you make him wait to see you ? Do you maintain a schedule? Is your schedule such that your subordinates must arrange their schedules to suit yours ? In a healthy organization, the manager and his subordinates use time to communicate their mutual respect to each other.